Ngokuya ngemodeli ye-athomu kaNiels Bohr, ama-proton nama-neutron we-athomu akuyo i-nucleus, kuyilapho ama-electron ezungezile. Yize singeke sazi ukuthi ikuphi i-electron ngqo, kunezindawo lapho kutholakala khona kakhulu, ama-orbitals e-athomu. Futhi singanquma kanjani lawo ma-orbital? Kulula kakhulu, kusetshenziswa izinombolo ze-quantum.
Yiziphi izinombolo ze-quantum?
Kunezinombolo ze-4 ze-quantum. Abathathu babo basinikeza imininingwane yokuthi i-electron ye-athomu ethile ikuphi, okungukuthi, basinika imininingwane nge-orbital. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, inombolo yesine ye-quantum ayisitsheli ukuthi ikuphi i-electron, kodwa kanjani. Ngabe awukacaci kahle ngalokhu? Kwenze!
- Inombolo enkulu ye-quantum (n). Lizinga lokugcina lamandla lokugcwalisa futhi likhombise ubukhulu be-orbital ngakho-ke ibanga eliphakathi kwe-nucleus ne-electron. Kungani? Kulula kakhulu. Okukhudlwana i-orbital, lapho i-electron ingaqhubeka ivela ku-nucleus ye-athomu.
- Inombolo ye-Azimuthal noma yesibili ye-quantum (l). Khombisa ukwakheka kwe-orbital.
- Inombolo ye-Magnetic quantum (m). Ikhombisa ukuma kwe-orbital.
- Spin inombolo ye-quantum (s). Tshela ukuthi iyiphi indlela ezungeza ngayo i-electron.
Kulula? Asihambe nento ebalulekile!
Zitholwa kanjani izinombolo ze-quantum
Ukuthola izinombolo ze-quantum kufanele ulandele izinyathelo ezi-2 ezilula:
- Bhala ukucushwa kwe-electron.
- Thola izinombolo ze-quantum kusuka kuma-elektroni ahlukile (eyokugcina egcwalisa i-orbital).
Ukumiswa kwe-elekthronikhi
Siqala ngesinyathelo 1, bhala ukucushwa kwe-electron. Kanjani? Kunezindlela ezimbili zokukwenza, ake sifike kukho!
Umdwebo weMoeller
Le ndlela ikhombisa ukuhleleka kokugcwaliswa kwama-orbitals ngomdwebo olandelayo:
Lo mdwebo ulawulwa ngumthetho we-Aufbau, ovikela ukuthi ama-orbital agcwalisa ukwanda kwamandla, okungukuthi, i-orbital enamandla amancane izogcwalisa phambilini.
Ukuthola ukuthi iyiphi i-orbital enamandla amaningi, kwenziwa ukusebenza n + l. Uma lokhu kusebenza kwama-athomu amabili ahlukene kuphumela kunombolo efanayo, lowo onombolo yakhe engu-n ephakeme angaba namandla amaningi. Ngamanye amagama, uma kwenzeka kuthayi, lowo onenombolo ephansi kakhulu ugcwaliswa kuqala. Ake sikubone ngesibonelo:
4p: n + l -> 4 + 1 = 5
5s: n + l -> 5 + 0 = 5
Njengoba kukhona uthayi emthethweni we-n + l, ugcwalisa u-4p ngaphambili ngoba inombolo yakhe ingaphansi.
Isibonelo seKernel
Ukuthola ukumiswa kwe-elekthronikhi ngokulandela le modeli kufanele ulazi kahle ithebula lezikhathi ezithile. Uma sinenombolo ye-athomu nokuma kwento etafuleni, ucezu lekhekhe!
Le ndlela ibhekwa njengendlela elula njengoba ivumela ukungabhali ukucushwa okuphelele kwe-electron. Ngale ndlela, singabhala igama lesici segesi esihle ngenhla kubakaki, bese kuba indlela esukela kulelo gesi elihle liye entweni okukhulunywa ngayo. Ake sibheke isibonelo:Ngakho-ke, sizobhala i-trajectory sicubungule inani lesikhathi (irowu yethebula lezikhathi) kanye ne- "zone" futhi, uma ukucushwa kwe-elekthronikhi sekubhaliwe, sizokhipha izinombolo ze-quantum.
I-phosphor (P) izobhalwa kusuka kwigesi enhle engenhla, okungukuthi, i-Neon:
P -> [Ne] 3s23p3
Vele, kufanele uqaphele ngale ndlela, ngoba izingxenye d no-f ziyizindawo ezikhethekile. Njengoba senza uhambo, ku-zone d ngeke sibeke inani lesikhathi (irowu), kodwa inani lesikhathi kususwe elilodwa. Kwenzeka okufanayo ngendawo F, ngeke sibeke inani lesikhathi, kepha inani lesikhathi kususwe ezimbili. Uzoyiqonda kangcono ngezibonelo ezimbalwa:
Nb -> [Kr] 5s14d4
Yize kusesikhathini sesi-5, uma sisezoni d, sisusa u-1.
Nd -> [Xe] 6s24f14
Yize kusenkathini yesi-6, lapho sisezoni f, sisusa u-2.
Okuhlukile ekucushweni kwe-elekthronikhi
Ukucushwa kwe-electron kunezici ezimbalwa ezikhethekile okuthi, uma ungazazi, zingaholela kubahlinzeki bekhanda abakhulu. Kodwa ungasabalalisi ukwethuka! Sizokutshela!
IZoni F
UZone F uvela ezansi kwetafula lezikhathi ezithile, kepha empeleni "ushumekwe" esikhaleni esisibona esimhlophe, okungukuthi, phakathi kwezinto zokuqala nezesibili zemigqa emibili yokugcina yendawo D.
Uyayibona? Ngalesi sizathu, kwesinye isikhathi, lapho kufanele sibhale ukumiswa kwe-elekthronikhi kwento ku-zone F, isibonelo, Nd, kuzofanele sibeke i-electron ku-zone D yezinga elihambisanayo ngokubhekisele kuleyo elementi ku-zone D leyo ngaphambi kokungena endaweni F.
Ce -> [Xe] 6s25d14f1
Iqembu 6 neqembu 11
Iqembu 6 nezinsimbi zenguquko zeqembu le-11 zinama-electron amane no-4 kumagobolondo abo okugcina, ngokulandelana. Ngakho-ke, ukuze kube yinto ezinze kakhudlwana, i-s orbital iyajabula futhi ilahlekelwe i-electron, edlulela ku-orbital elandelayo, i-d. Ngale ndlela, i-orbital s izosala ne-electron; futhi d no-9, uma kuyinto yeqembu 5, noma nge-6, uma kuyinto yeqembu le-10.
Nasi isibonelo:
Ag -> [Kr] 5s24d9
Ngokusobala, lokhu kungaba ukucushwa kwesiliva kwe-electron (Ag). Kodwa-ke, ukulahlekelwa i-electron ku-s orbital, kubukeka kanjena:
Ag -> [Kr] 5s14d10
Kodwa-ke, kukhona okuhlukile kulo mthetho, njengeTungsten (iqembu 6), elisele nama-electron amabili ku-s orbital no-2 ku-d orbital.
Kepha ungakhathazeki! Okujwayelekile kakhulu (i-Cr, Cu, Ag ne-Au) bayalandela lo mthetho.
Uyakuthola? Kulungile. Yilokho kuphela okudingeka ukwazi mayelana nokucushwa kwe-electron. Ake sihambe ngezinombolo ze-quantum!
Ungazithola kanjani izinombolo ze-quantum
Ukuze sithole izinombolo ze-quantum, kufanele sazi ukuthi mangaki ama-electron angena egobolondweni ngalinye le-orbital, kucatshangelwa ukuthi ama-electron amabili alingana ku-orbital.
- Isendlalelo s. Ine-orbital eyodwa kuphela, ngakho-ke ingabamba ama-electron ama-2.
- Isendlalelo p. Inama-orbital ama-3, ngakho-ke kukhona indawo yama-electron ayisithupha.
- Isendlalelo d. Inama-orbital ama-5, ngakho-ke ingabamba ama-electron ayi-10.
- Isendlalelo f. Inama-orbital ayi-7, okungukuthi, ingabamba ama-electron ayi-14.
Manje njengoba uqonda ukuthi kukhona ama-electron amabili ku-orbital ngayinye, kufanele wazi umthetho kaHund. Lo mthetho uthi lapho ugcwalisa ama-orbital e-sublevel efanayo noma igobolondo, isibonelo, i-p shell, ama-electron agcwalisa i-orbital ohlangothini olulodwa (oluhle) bese kolunye (olubi). Ngabe ufuna ukuyibona ngesibonelo?
Uma sine-2p4, okungukuthi, i-2p orbital enama-electron amane, ngeke igcwalise kanjena:
Izogcwalisa kanjena:
Ingabe uyakuthola? Kuhle, ake sibone ukuthi singazibala kanjani izinombolo:
- Inombolo ye-Quantum n. Le nombolo ihambisana nenombolo yezinga lokugcina lokumiswa kwe-electron. Isibonelo, uma ukucushwa kwe-electron kuphela ngo-4s2, inombolo eyinhloko ye-quantum izoba ngu-4.
- Inombolo ye-Quantum l. Le nombolo incike kusendlalelo sokugcina esigcwalisiwe.
- Isendlalelo s -> l = 0
- Isendlalelo p -> l = 1
- Isendlalelo d -> l = 2
- Isendlalelo f -> l = 3
- Inombolo ye-Quantum m. Inombolo m ingaba yinani eliphakathi kuka -l kuya + l, ngakho-ke kuzoya ngesisekelo lapho i-elektroni lokwehlukahluka likhona, okusho ukuthi, ingabe liyi-s, p, d noma f. Ungayibala kanjani le nombolo inzima kakhulu, ake siyibone ngemidwebo embalwa:
- Isendlalelo s -> Njengoba sibonile, i-l ibiza u-0, ngakho-ke i-m ingabiza u-0 kuphela.
- Isendlalelo p -> I l kufanele 1, ngakho-ke u-m angaba ngu -1, 0 noma 1.
- Isendlalelo d -> I-l ngu-2, ngakho-ke i-m ingaba -2, -1, 0, 1 no-2.
- Isendlalelo f -> l sinenani elingu-3, ngakho-ke m angaba ngu -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 no-3.
Usuvele uyazi ukuthi ama-orbital agcwaliswa kanjani, ngakho-ke inani le-quantum m lizoba nenani lomgodi lapho kune-electron yokugcina edwetshiwe. Uyasikhumbula lesi sibonelo ngaphambili?:
Kulokhu, u-m uzoba -1, ngoba ku-p shell (ama-orbitals ama-3), uma kukhona ama-electron amane, owokugcina ukugcwalisa kungaba yi-negative yokuqala ye-orbital.
- Inombolo ye-Quantum s. Izinombolo ze-quantum zingabiza u-½ no -½ kuphela. Uma i-electron yokugcina edwetshiwe ivuma, okungukuthi, umcibisholo uphezulu, ama-s azoba ngu-½. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uma i-electron yokugcina yokugcwalisa i-orbital iyinegethivu, okungukuthi, umcibisholo ukhombe phansi, u-s uzoba -½.
Ukuzivocavoca nezibonelo
Yebo, sesivele sazi ukuthi konke lokhu ulwazi oluningi, kepha uzokuqonda kangcono ngezibonelo ezithile. Nazo-ke!
Isibonelo se-1
I-Selenium (Se) -> Inombolo ye-athomu: 34
- Sibhala ukumiswa kwe-electron. Sibhala ukumiswa kwe-electron ngokusho komdwebo weMoeller, kucatshangelwa ukuthi ama-s, p, d no-f orbitals anama-electron 2, 6, 10 no-14 ngokulandelana. Sibhala ukumiswa ngokungeza inani lama-electron, elibhalwe njenge-exponent.
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4
Njengoba i-orbital ye-4p ingagcwali, ngoba ama-electron azokwengeza afike ku-36, asibeki i-4p6kodwa 4p4.
- Sikhipha izinombolo ze-quantum. Ukuze senze lokhu, sibheka i-valence noma i-electron ehlukile, okungukuthi, i-electron yokugcina egcwalise i-orbital. Kulokhu, sizobheka i-4p4.
- Inombolo enkulu ye-quantum. Izinga lamandla lokugcina ukugcwalisa bekungu-4.
n = 4
- Inombolo yesibili yesilinganiso. Isigcini samandla sokugcina ukugcwalisa kwakuyi-p orbital.
l = 1
- Inombolo ye-Magnetic quantum. Uma sidonsa ama-electron, owokugcina ukugcwalisa kuzoba i-orbital yokuqala yegobolondo le-p.
m = -1
- Spin inombolo ye-quantum. I-electron yokugcina ukusebenzisa i-p orbital inomcibisholo waphansi.
s = -½
Isibonelo se-2
Igolide (Au) -> [Xe] 6s14f145d10
- Inombolo enkulu ye-quantum -> n = 5
- Inombolo yesibili yesilinganiso -> l = 2
- Inombolo ye-Magnetic quantum -> m = 2
- Spin inombolo ye-quantum -> s = -½
Futhi yilokho kuphela! Manje sekuyithuba lakho, ungakwenza ukucushwa kwe-electron bese uthola izinombolo ze-quantum zezinto ezilandelayo?:
UCr (24), Rb (37), Br (35), Lu (71), Au (79)